Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Diversity in Greece and Their Future Prospects : A Review

The Mediterranean, a biodiversity hotspot, is rich in medicinal and aromatic plants covering an extensive area with different environmental conditions. The geographical position of Greece, its geomorphology, the presence of flora of past geological eras and the coexistence and interplay of biotic and non biotic factors have defined it as a region of high plant diversity and endemism, a fact that also impacts the category of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). The past 30 years there has been a rapid growth of interest in MAPs as a result of the vital contributions these goods make to large numbers of rural communities. At the same time there is a shift within many developing countries from subsistence to commercial usage. MAPs are important factors in sustainable development, environmental protection and public health. In Greece, they are expected to play an important role in the country’s agricultural profile due to quantitative and qualitative advantages. MAP cultivation can help small-scale farmers strengthen their livelihoods and as a result, greater access to a wider range of assets can be achieved, and a capacity to build these into successful and sustainable activities. This review aims at profiling the current state of MAP cultivation in Greece, as well as their future sustainability prospects.


Introduction 1.History
Western medicine can be traced back to the Greek physician Hippocrates, who believed that disease had natural causes and used various herbal remedies in his treatments early Roman writings also influenced the development of western medicine, especially the works of Dioscorides, Galena and Avicenna (Bruneton, 2001).The herbaceous plants are an integral component of everyday life and culture in all over the world for centuries.These plants are used in pharmaceuticals, in cosmetics, in cooking and in recent years, in food technology as antioxidants.The Greek flora is rich in native herbaceous plants and the climatic and soil conditions are prevailing with the possibility of their cultivation (Stefanou et al., 2014).
The initiation of medicinal plant and aromatic production, as a gathering or cultivation of plant materials, is lost throughout history.The origins of traditional herbal medicine predate all existing records, and this ancient knowledge, across different parts of the world, is enormous.
These plants with unique chemical profiles that offered cures and flavors would soon be much valued by early humans (Friedman & Adler, 2007).They have now become the main source for medicines, seasonings, colorings, preservatives, and many other similar commodities.Several diverse lines of data prove that medicinal plants represent the oldest and most widespread form of medication.Until last century most medicines were derived directly from plant or animal sources (Craker, Gardner, & Etter, 2003, Craker & Gardner, 2006).
There is abundant archaeological proof of medicinal plants being regularly used by people in prehistoric times.People of the prehistoric times believed that illnesses was due to the presence of evil spirits in the human body and could be cured using poisonous substances that make the body an uncomfortable vessel (Voliotis, 1998).
In many ancient cultures botanical preparations were ingested for curative and psychotherapeutic purposes.Evidence suggests that healers of those early times were aware of the mind-body interconnection and the important role of patient relaxation in medical treatment and cures (Adovasio & Fry, 1976;De Montellano, 1975;Sharon & Donnan, 1977).
One of the oldest written evidence of medicinal plants' usage was found on a Sumerian clay slab from Nagpur, approximately 5000 years old.It showcases 12 recipes for drug preparation that incorporate over 250 various plants (Kelly, 2009).
The ancient Egyptians, as early as 6000 years ago, had developed an elaborate and effective pharmacological collection of substances obtained from natural resources.Nunn (1996) states: "By far the most common form of treatment recommended in the medical papyri was the use of drugs, drawn from a very wide range of animal, mineral, and vegetable substances and administered in a variety of ways".The ancient Egyptians were renowned for their skill in this respect.Plant extracts were prepared and received internally or applied topically, and administered by fumigation or vapor inhalation.Oakes and Gahlin (2003) point out that "The Egyptians were the first people to use a number of drugs that modern studies have proved would have been medicinally effective." A Chinese book on roots and grasses, "Pen T'Sao," written by Emperor Shen Nung at approximately 2500 BC mentions 365 drugs that derive from dried parts of medicinal plants (Bottcher, 1965;Wiart, 2006).
Other early discoveries of useful medicinal plants lie in several early historic cultures, 1000 to 2000 years ago in China, India, and Tibet.The herbal specialist, or the 'witchdoctor' was seen as a person of influence and stature in these societies (Lao, 1999;Cai & Zhen, 2003;Badmaev, 1999;Steiner, 2003).About 1000 years ago healers in the Aztec and Maya Indian cultures of Mexico and Central America were experimenting with natural curing substances and exploited at least 132 medicinal herbs for the treatment of specific ailments (Evans, 2004;Berdan, 2005).

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Hippocrates (460-370 BC), around 400 BC provided us with a list of more than 400 drugs including substances of herbs and medicinal plants, of which about half are used today.Systematic observation and research led Hippocrates to the conclusion that herbs combine tasty treat with therapeutic value and thus expressed the following view: "Make food your medicine and medicine your food."Hippocrates (460 BC), "father of medicine", mentions about 400 plants in his books, most of which are medicinal and aromatic.
According to passages from the Bible and the holy Jewish book of the Talmud, during various rituals that were part of a treatment, aromatic plants were utilized such as myrtle and incense (Dimitrova, 1999).Marco Polo's journeys (1254-1324) in tropical Asia, China, and Persia, and America (1492) as well as Vasco De Gama's journeys to India (1498) brought many unknown medicinal plants into Europe.Botanical gardens sprouted all over the continent, and attempts were made for cultivation of plants imported from the new world.

Medicinal, Aromatic Plants and Their Uses
Nowadays, the world is rapidly developing and population demographics are continuously growing.Consequently, the use of natural available resources is a new provocation and it has become a typical approach, where the environment permits it.It is of high priority to do so in areas that have a favorable climatic conditions (Bogers, Craker, & Lange, 2006), and the Greek area is one favorable place where the aromatic plants are an important natural resource (Lange, 2001; Mateescu, Paun, Popescu, Roata, & Sidoroff, 2014).
Aromatic and medicinal plants are important factors in sustainable development, environmental protection and public health.Since ancient times, medicinal and aromatic plants have had wide applications, and continue to be used fresh, frozen or dry, as well as transfused into oils, extracts and essences, initially for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries (Miguel et al., 2004;Bogers et al., 2006).Moreover, beekeepers utilize these plants in honey, pollen and bee-glue production during spring.Among MAPs, the more salable species like mint, lemon balm, lavender, chamomile, etc., are cultivated with conventional or sustainable management systems (Lawrence, 1985;Bown, 2001;Zuazo et al., 2008).
To be more specific, aromatic plants can be divided into groups based on how they are used: Medicinal and aromatic plants can help small-scale farmers strengthen their livelihoods directly through income generation from their trade as well as health care provision.With strengthened livelihoods comes greater access to a wider range of assets, and a capacity to build these into successful and sustainable activities, thereby reducing vulnerability to poverty in the long term.

Contribution to Sustainable Livelihoods
An estimated 50,000 -70,000 species of higher plants -1 in 6 of all species -are used in traditional and modern medicine throughout the world, and many more species are important to the growing market for plant-based cosmetics and other products, representing by far the biggest use of the natural world in terms of number of species (Leaman, 2008).
Today, in many developing and transition countries these species make an essential contribution to health care, providing the only effective medicine for the significant proportions of the population, where other forms of medication are either unavailable or unaffordable.An estimated 80 percent of the population in Africa and Asia rely largely on these plant-based drugs for their health care needs, and the WHO (2008) has estimated that in coming decades a similar percentage of the world population may well rely on plant-based medicines.There is also an interest in using aromatic plants in animal nutrition, in order to replace the use of antibiotics and ionophore anticoccidials (Greathead, 2003).
Many aromatic plants thrifty worldwide, with many originating from the Mediterranean area, either in the wild or cultivated (e.g.rosemary, oregano, sage, thymus, peppermint and garlic) ( Christaki et al., 2012).Several of these substances can operate synergistically, so their bioactivity is enhanced (Tiwari, 2008).Some bioactive compounds indicate therapeutic value, such as antioxidant and antiseptic activities (Madsen & Bertelsen, 1995;Christaki et al., 2012).As a result, aromatic plants may reduce the risk of cancer or cardiovascular diseases (Duthie & Brown, 2004;Milner, 1994) and may find application as treatments in curing or managing a wide range of ailments such as respiratory diseases and stomach or inflammatory disorders (Kadri et al., 2011;Christaki et al., 2012).
There are more than 3000 plants used for their essential oils of which about 300 are used commercially as flavors and fragrances (Van de Braak & Leijten, 1999).Some Medicinal and Aromatic plant species in Greece is presented in Table 1.According to Figure 1, the food industry uses the oils in soft drinks, food confectionary, etc., and the cosmetic industry includes them in perfumes, skin and hair care products, aromatotherapy, etc., whereas the pharmaceutical industry utilizes them for their functional properties (Lubbe & Verpoorte, 2011;Christaki et al., 2012).

Importance of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Sustainable Agriculture in Greece
The geographical position of Greece, its geomorphology, the presence of flora of past geological eras and the coexistence and interplay of biotic and non biotic factors have defined Greece as a country of high plant diversity and endemism (Martinos, Skoufogianni, Stathaki, & Solomou, 2015).This vast diversity is also reflected in MAPs as Greece conveys a long ethnopharmacological tradition (Kantsa, Sotiropoulou, Vaitis, & Petanidou, 2015), partly due to diverse landscape and the numerous mountainous and insular systems, viz.109 out of the 255 habitat types encountered throughout Europe.MAPs are expected to play an important role in the Greek rural economy and facilitate change in the national agro-food sector as it still a developing sector.In 2013MAPs occupied a land span of merely 0.04% of the country's cultivated land (Ministry of Rural Development, pers.comm.).
Nowadays the needs of both producers and consumers are changing dynamically.Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) played and essential role in crop selection throughout the last decades in Greece.Developments in CAP during the period of 2007 to 2013 indirectly influenced the culture and production of aromatic plants in Greece.The two most important development was the release policy (decoupling) of subsidies from production and their conversion to area subsidies based on historical production (RE.HERB, 2013).As a result a critical number of farmers shifted to growing herbs or legumes or even to non-agricultural activities such as rural tourism, and energy production via photovoltaic systems.The global economic crisis, started at 2008, affects the cultivation in different ways.One of the effects it had was the dramatic increase of unemployment rate especially for people from 15 to 25 years old to the rate of 65% and the consequent shift of many young people to the agricultural sector but to non-conventional crops.All the factors above somehow seem to facilitate a change in Greek crop selection in which MAPs should reflect an important part of for the following reasons: 1) Land allotment in Greece is characterized by small figures, land holdings ranging from 2 to 4.9 ha represented a stunning 75% of agriculturally utilized Greek land in 2010 (Eurostat, 2015).By cultivating MAPs, Greek farmers can be allowed to sustain a livelihood by utilizing few hectares of land which would not otherwise contribute to their income in the case of conventional crops such as tobacco or cotton.
2) Greek biodiversity and the Mediterranean climatic conditions are two very favorable factors in the production of indigenous MAPs which will offer a substantial qualitative advantage to Greek herbal products.
3) Concerning the climate change, the aromatic and medicinal plants, appears to be of low demand concerning their irrigation and organic cultivation when compared to highmaintenance crops.In the new programming framework which provided important actions for resilience and adaptation in climate change, aromatic and medicinal herbs, plants and trees cultivation should face significant opportunities to grow.
At this point, we should mention two critical points that will be of great importance regarding the development and utilization of such crops.
1) The technologies used now and in the future, will determine to a large extent the state of production for MAPs.These factors include implementation of R&D programs, the adoption of innovative technologies in the production and the automation of the production.The specific technological improvements could influence the production costs, the product quality and lead to innovation.
2) Government subsidies and motivation should be focused partly on the MAP sector in terms of promoting cultivation, innovation, and processing of medicinal and aromatic plants.

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Other than this, an attempt to educate past and future generations of farmers so as to merge old traditional cultivation techniques with the new European phytosanitary standards via the use of innovative technological means should be made.

Medicinal Plants and Future Applications
The cytotoxic capacity of the essential oils based on a prooxidant activity can make them excellent antiseptic and antimicrobial agents for personal use, i.e. for purifying air, personal hygiene, or even internal use via oral consumption, and for insecticidal use for the preservation of crops or food stocks (Bakkali et al., 2008).
A big advantage of essential oils is the fact that they are usually devoid of long-term genotoxic risks.Moreover, some of them show a very clear antimutagenic capacity which could well be linked to an anticarcinogenic activity.Recent studies have demonstrated that the activity of essential oils or some of their constituents, as also that of some polyphenols, is very efficient in reducing local tumor volume or tumor cell proliferation by apoptotic and/or necrotic effects (Kachadourian & Day, 2006;Bakkali et al., 2008).

Conclusion
Conclusively, medicinal and aromatic plant has a vital role in the utilization of the natural wealth and conservation of biodiversity in the state.Also, due to the selective and multifaceted biological activity of essential oils, there exists considerable potential on the use of aromatic plants for novel applications in sustainable agriculture.
Moreover, this review shows that valuable uses are possible and that medicinal and aromatic plants diversity represents attainable new environmentally and economically sustainable opportunities for agricultural areas, which should be the motive to boost further studies on the cultivation of these plants.
a) As raw materials for essential oil extraction: a major use of these plants.b) As culinary spices: the non-leafy parts are used as a flavoring or seasoning.c) As culinary herbs: the leafy or soft flowering parts are used as a flavoring or seasoning.d) Medicinal group: the development of natural or semi synthetic medicine, e) Miscellaneous group: MAPs and their extracts become components of cosmetics, dyes, air fresheners, disinfectants, botanical pesticides, insect repellents, etc.