Impact of Journalism Educators on Media Performance and Journalism Practice in Taiwan

This study examines the role of journalism educators in Taiwan in shaping their students’ views of the profession, and the extent to which the ethics and values taught at university are practiced in the newsroom. Interviews were conducted with educators and journalism graduates from National Chengchi University, a public institution recognized as setting the standard for journalism education in the country, and Nanhua University, a private institution. The study indicates that an individual educator’s attitudes and opinions on concepts such as public service, news value, and news ethics have an impact on the views of students, although business and political pressures, as well as Taiwan’s highly competitive media market, may compromise journalistic values and ethics.


Introduction 1.1 Theme of the Study
How do journalism educators assess journalistic practice and media performance in Taiwan's highly competitive media market?For this study, 12 journalism professors and 12 of their former students, currently working as journalists, were interviewed.Six professors and six journalists were from Chengchi University in northern Taiwan, ranked number one by reputation in journalism in the country; the others were from Nanhua University, a private institution in south Taiwan (See Appendix 1, 2, 3).The study sought to identify correlations between the opinions of journalism educators and journalists.Taking up James Carey's challenge to more precisely locate the object of study in research (Carey, 1998), the study maintains that journalism education must be regarded as an institutional practice that represents the perspectives of educators on historical, political, economic, and cultural conditions.The journalism curriculum must, therefore, not only equip students with a skill set and broad social knowledge, but instill public service, news values, and ethics.This study argues that the attitudes and opinions of an individual educator can have a major impact on students' views of the profession and its role in society.

Journalism in Taiwan's Media Environment
With its rapid industrialization from the 1960s to the 1990s, Taiwan emerged as one of the "Asian Tigers," achieving a GDP per capita (PPP) of US $38,500 by 2012, along with the world's sixth largest holding of foreign exchange reserves (CIA, 2013).Taiwan's media environment changed ~ 54 ~ dramatically after martial law was lifted in 1988.With rising prosperity, the media market expanded rapidly, offering more choices to consumers.(See Figure 1) Taiwan has one of the most competitive media markets in the world, with 282 TV channels available by satellite, 170 radio stations, 2,100 newspapers, and 8,100 magazines, along with a wide array of online news and entertainment services, all competing for the attention of its 23 million people (GIO, 2011) (see figure 1).Seven TV channels report live news 24 hours a day, seven days a week.By contrast, Japan has two 24hour news channels (NNN24 and JNN) while another Asian Tiger, South Korea, has one (YTN).Additionally, there are 82 satellite newsgathering units in daily operation, reflecting the intensity of professional journalistic activity.

Figure 1. Taiwan's media profile
As ever more journalists are needed to meet the demands of the market, the quality of journalism has become a topic of increasing debate.Some have argued that the role of education "is of central importance in establishing and maintaining professional status" (Sparks & Splichal, 1989).
Taiwan is now a fully industrialized country, and its political and cultural liberalization has transformed its media environment.It is now grappling with the free press problems faced by other developed countries in the digital age, including an oversaturation of questionable content.Taiwan's average per person media consumption is 0.3 hours per day for print newspapers and magazines, 2.3 hours for the Internet, and 3.7 hours for TV (Educational Fubon Fund, 2009).The debate over news content, both among the general public and in academia, focuses largely on how media monopolies have resulted in less variety in content and a drop in professional journalism standards.Although Reporters without Borders currently ranks Taiwan 47th in its World Press Freedom Index of 179 countries (Reporters without Borders, 2013).Due to intense competition for ratings, news is often reported without adequate research or sources, and is often influenced by politics and profits.
~ 55 ~ A 2006 survey of journalists revealed shocking statistics: only 5% felt their reporting was reaching their intended audience, a mere 0.9% said their news was reported objectively, 69% believed they were reporting issues of insignificance to society, and 50% said they experienced the heavy hand of political influence on their reporting (Xu, 2006).Such statistics shed light on the contradictions, dilemmas, and challenges educators face in addressing the tradeoffs inherent in diverse stakeholder interests such as profitable business performance vs. responsible journalistic practices.

The Definition of a Professional Journalist
Defining what constitutes a professional journalist, as well as the journalism profession itself, has been argued for many years (Dennis & Merrill, 1991;Barber, 1963).Greenwood (1957) and Wilensky (1964) (Lo, 1997).In a nationwide U.S. survey, Johnstone, Slawski, and Bowman (1976) addressed journalists' beliefs regarding their professional roles in news gathering and reporting.They found that some journalists were "neutral" role proponents, seeing themselves as simply an "immaterial transmission link dispensing information to the public."They also conceived of and proposed three professional role categories for journalists: interpretive, disseminator, and adversarial.Others such as Weaver and Wilhoit (1998) used factor analysis to identify four attitudinal clusters-interpretive/investigative, disseminator, adversarial, and populist mobilizer.This study argues that defining the journalist's role should focus on the profession's core values, even as existing journalism conventions are being challenged by changes in communication technologies.These conventions are premised on critical principles: report the facts, show the truth, provide neutral and objective reporting in the public interest, and be a voice for disadvantaged people.
To pursue the public's right to know, the media-often considered the "Fourth Estate" of society-bear a heavy responsibility: monitoring government and those in power, defending freedom of speech, highlighting democratic values, and presenting diverse views on controversial issues.Performing these duties requires establishing clear standards for professional journalists, and adapting to new media technologies.At the same time, professional journalists face the age-old challenge of sifting through sources to verify information; determining what is "real" and what is of "news value" to the public.The role of the journalist is to meet this challenge, regardless of the country's cultural climate and political influences.

University-Based Journalism Education in Taiwan
In Taiwan's higher education system, journalism departments should be distinguished from media, film, and communication departments, even though in practice the curricular and disciplinary divisions are often unclear.In a 2001 study of academic departments, 23 described themselves as "mass communication" departments; new communication technology ranked second with 13 departments, journalism third with 12 departments, with six other departments offering some communication courses (Weng,2001).Because the lines that distinguish journalism and communication majors in Taiwan are somewhat blurred, similar training, tools, and technologies are increasingly incorporated into the curricula of both areas (Cushion, 2007).
Government higher education policy has made a college education available to more Taiwanese.In 2010 and 2012, 94.8% and 88%, respectively, of all applicants were accepted into university (Xu, 2006).As a result, journalism education has become more popular.In 1991, only 11 university departments offered journalism ~ 56 ~ but by 2012, 53 departments did.This indicates the extent to which journalism education has become essential for preparing Taiwan's cadre of professional journalists even though no standard journalism curriculum has yet been established by Taiwan's Ministry of Education.As a result, many media organizations, while preferring a formal degree in journalism, do not require it, and some look for graduates with a more diverse educational background in fields such as finance, economics, or politics.
It is important to assess how journalism educators view current trends, and how their perspectives prepare the next generation of journalists to work in the converged digital media environment (Chung, Kim, Trammel, & Porter, 2007).Still, the very concept of professionalism can be controversial.Journalism education that emphasizes professionalism and advocates neutrality and objectivity above all else is a Western concept; such concepts are not applied to the same degree in Taiwan because of differences in culture, politics and the media system.For example, an analysis of curricula at 37 departments in the United States indicated that while some had a universal core, others offered a specialty core, or no core at all (Blanchard & Christ, 1985, p. 29).In Taiwan, there is a greater emphasis on core subjects such as news reporting and writing, the history of journalism, news editing, journalism law, communication statistics, ethics, photography, journalism English, and media management (Pan, Lo, & Tsang, 1996, pp.88-99).
As in the United States, journalism and communication studies are taught in both public and private universities.National Chengchi University and Shih Hsin University, as pioneering journalism schools, provided the initial academic and curricular templates for other universities.Many universities now offer four-year undergraduate journalism programs and have adopted Western standards.One of the reasons is that many Taiwanese scholars were educated in the US.From 1950 to 1970, when Taiwan had few media outlets or newspapers, scholars such as Ho-Gig Wang and Ra-Tzu Shih studied journalism and its social impact at the University of Missouri.These two scholars subsequently founded the journalism departments at National Chengchi and Shih Hsin universities.Thanks to their efforts, journalism education rapidly expanded from the early 1970s to the 1990s.
In general, curricula view journalism as an institutional practice of representation with its own historical, political, economic, and cultural conditions.Each university sets its own curriculum because no standard curriculum is set by Taiwan's Ministry of Education.Because National Chengchi University is rated as Taiwan's top journalism school, many Taiwanese universities follow Chengchi's curriculum (http://www.jschool.nccu.edu.tw/).

Curriculum Design for Professional Journalism
The table 1 shows that the curriculum of National Chengchi is centered on journalism training for different media.By contrast, the curriculum of the communication department at Nanhua University is more diverse, spanning and integrating elements of several areas including communication, media, and culture.
Journalism educators in Taiwan believe that being a journalist requires broad knowledge of civil liberties, literacy, language, writing, and interpersonal skills.
Taiwan's approach combines academic aspects with practical vocational training: internships are now the norm at most universities and departments set up student-managed media centers, newspapers, and websites, all geared toward practical training.Teachers are also experimenting in creatively achieving learning objectives through media internships (Hung, 2002).Teachers have a high degree of autonomy to develop curricula and students have freedom to select subjects-both of which can positively or negatively impact learning and professional performance.
~ 58 ~ journalism background, many are not currently practicing journalists.Teachers at rural or urban universities who are not practicing journalists generally do not have the same level of first-hand knowledge or information as their journalist peers, despite having overall teaching competency.Such differences in teacher training and background undoubtedly impact both the curriculum and the level of student motivation.

Impact of Education/Educator on Taiwanese Journalism Professionals
Despite Deuze's (2006) belief that journalism educators across the world face similar issues and challenges, the different curricula taught at Chengchi and Nanhua suggest little agreement in academia on how to best address them.Two areas are considered by this author in defining professional journalism.The first focuses on theory and ethics based on professional values and public responsibilities.The second consists of technical skills such as writing and reporting.This study focuses primarily on the first area-news values and ethics.
Three of the four journalists interviewed agreed that their concept of news was impacted by their teacher's attitudes and opinions."My university teacher influenced me a lot on ideology-related questions and concepts," said Mary, a graduate of National Chengchi University and a journalist at ELTA TV.(Personal Communication, October 31, 2012)

I see many journalists today writing articles without thinking about questions of ideology, but I always think about such questions and concepts when deciding what I need to give my audience and what issues I need to sort out…these are concepts I learned from my teachers. Put the audience as your central focus, not others. I learned this from my teachers and will remember it when reporting any story.
Vivian, who teaches TV news reporting and writing at National Chengchi University, agreed.

Whatever topic a journalist picks up, he/she has to first learn how to think critically because a media organization won't teach their journalists how to think. I believe a professional journalist should not just convey a story, but most importantly must organize the story to build mutual communication with the audience.
Some, however, believe that the media environment exerts a greater impact than education or educators."I don't think educators' opinions and attitudes have much effect on journalists' performance," said Elaine, a Nanhua graduate who works as a reporter for Hakka TV."Rather, I believe the character of the media organization itself has a far greater impact." Because of Taiwan's highly competitive media market, promoting professional values and ethics is regarded as crucial in journalism education.A frequent criticism is that while students learn about ethics and values, they downplay such considerations when faced with the real-world pressures of intense political influence and fierce business competition."As a journalist, I'm not really empowered to decide news values, and just obey my editor's decisions even if our opinions are different," said Elaine.
Editors face daily business pressures unrelated to news values and as a result, journalists need to develop interpersonal strategies to skillfully manage their supervisors.Educators in turn are thus challenged to be highly creative in the teaching methodologies they employ to develop these essentials skill.The extent of this challenge is echoed by educator Vivian: "Although my teachers had always taught me to stand up and fight with the boss, I don't want to put my students at risk of losing their jobs because of a poor working relationship.Instead, I teach them to be soft, smart, and flexible in managing their bosses.Try to use soft persuasion-rather than divisive dissuasion-to win over your boss."Susan, who teaches reporting, writing, and electronic news at Chengchi, uses role-play exercises to not only creatively teach students on how to effectively negotiate with colleagues and supervisors but also to simultaneously stay focused on the key questions that consume journalists: "What is the news value?What does this news mean?Why do you need this news?"Proponents of higher professional standards often fail to consider the industry's profit orientation.Critics have pointed out that journalism education often fails to equip students with the tools to analyze the balance of power between journalists and their employers (Macdonald, 2006).The position and perspectives of university students and working journalists are drastically different.In school, critical literacy concepts and public service perceptions are mainly shaped by teachers; in the workplace, however, such concepts are often reshaped by supervisors and corporate culture.Despite these challenges, journalism educators try to instill news values that serve the public interest."A reporter must always remember that serving the public is the journalism profession's sacred duty," said educator Susan.(Personal Communication, October 31, 2012) One of my students was doing news reporting in New Zealand when a major earthquake happened suddenly in Taiwan; so she used her iPhone 3G to upload her reporting of this news instead of her originally assigned topic.This shows a clear dedication and concept in her mind to report news that serves the public interest.
As electronic journalist Mary put it, "Being a good journalist by definition means benefiting society.I don't want my newspaper to serve mainly as a place mat for putting lunch boxes; I expect it to have a more important purpose for serving the public."Business and political influences, and the competitive media market, have increased scrutiny of credibility and professional standards.The phrase "No evidence, no truth, no objectivity" has often been used to describe Taiwan's media.Criticisms often observed by this author include survey manipulation by politicians, advertising seeping into news, judgmental rather than objective reporting, undue business influence on reporting of public issues, excessive coverage of sex and violence, distortion of facts, pervasive political influence, and media as judge, jury and executioner.
Jenny, who teaches broadcast news reporting at Nanhua University, believes journalism education must integrate media literacy and ethical training."Ethical issues are very important; news sources must be treated ethically…most journalism students have been exposed to ethics training, so hopefully they are mentally prepared to maintain high ethical standards throughout their careers."TV news journalist Mary agrees.(Personal Communication, October 31, 2012) Ethical issues must be taught in schools to properly prepare journalists for the many ethical challenges they will inevitably face in the workplace-for example the systematic seeping of advertising into news.The ethics training I received in school provided me with the critical thinking skills necessary to navigate the myriad ethical landmines all professional journalists invariably face and must judge for themselves.
In his teaching of ethics at Nanhua University, educator John used the case study of Apple Daily's 1 "pernicious practice of publishing explicit photographs of accident fatalities [often graphically showing dismembered and naked bodies] in total disregard of the emotional impact on 1  ~ 60 ~ victims' families-and [often] without even verifying the actual facts.This lack of respect and discretion is a double blow to the victims' families.Such exploitative news reporting mainly harms underprivileged members of society who lack the power and resources to sue for redress of emotional injury; this is just not fair...I especially emphasize these emotional points in my class." Educator Vivian noted that ethics "depends not only on the individual journalist's judgment but also on a media organization's policies pertaining to its journalism practices."Many media organizations are driven by market forces to focus on delivering larger and larger audiences to more and more advertisers.This can undermine newsroom employees' sense of autonomy and independence.

The Impact of Education/Curriculum on Professional Performance
Journalism education in Taiwan focuses mainly on practical skills, with most universities hiring working journalists.The experiential or case study method is often cited as an effective way of instilling knowledge and educating students."I always use case studies for spurring student discussions and soliciting their critical views," said educator Susan."I find that the case study method works best for sharpening students' critical thinking skills."Critical thinking opens the eyes of students to the (often harsh) reality of real-world news reporting.As educator Vivian describes it, (Personal Communication, October 31, 2012) Some teachers work in media industries, and they know the darker side of the media business, i.e., what's really going on behind the scenes: probing into people's privacy to get whatever juicy, tantalizing details are necessary to sell "meaningless" stories and capture larger audiences for corporate advertisers; this is the harsh reality of today's very competitive media environment and students should understand it sooner rather than later.
Educator Susan found that students idolize instructors who are still working in the field and are more inclined to trust their opinions.Not surprisingly, full-time journalism teachers are frequently faced with students who are skeptical of their expertise on key issues, and differences in teacher quality, training and background undoubtedly also impact the level of student motivation.As a result, many teachers are trying to improve their methods and materials while departments are intensifying their efforts to offer campus media and professional internships.(Personal Communication, October 31, 2012) "I participated in a print newspaper internship and remember with great pride getting my first business card as a student journalist," recalled electronic news journalist Janet, a Chengchi graduate.
I immediately became active in local affairs-socializing within the community, interviewing people, and reporting their news.This experience was a very important step in building the confidence necessary to become a journalist; I learned many essential interpersonal and social skills.

The Power of Attitudes and Opinions to Motivate Students
The journalists interviewed all said that, as students, their perceptions of the profession, its mission and responsibilities, were shaped by the ability of their teachers to relate classroom activities to the real world.(Personal Communication, October 31, 2012) "My teachers stressed prioritizing local community needs above commercial interests," said TV news journalist Mary."I really think it is important to exemplify this guiding principle in one's ~ 61 ~ professional performance even if implementation is not always possible."Mary recalls how her teacher helped her gain experience and confidence.I remember that my teacher assigned us lots of practical projects, and how much I learned from them.Every interview conducted and every story written was a new educational experience.Just following my teacher's instructions on how to gather news, interview people, and write stories provided excellent training.

Conclusion
This study has examined the role of journalism educators in shaping media performance and practice.Educators and working journalists agree that while the attitudes and opinions of educators are certainly influential, political and business interests, and the competitiveness of the media market, may have a greater impact.As a result, journalism educators often focus on teaching practical subjects as well as the communication skills needed to influence supervisors.
Journalism practice is often reshaped by an organization's corporate and supervisory culture.Educators are thus challenged to instill ethical and professional values that will sustain journalism integrity and independence, and to balance the public service mission of journalism against the forces of the market and commercialism.
The hiring of professional journalists as instructors and the use of the case study method have proved effective in teaching practical skills.Many universities now prepare students through on and off-campus internship programs that provide not only skills training tools but also connect campus classroom learning to the real media world.
Undeniably, education still plays a crucial role in teaching students the basic concepts of professional journalism.All the journalists interviewed credited their teachers with relating classroom activities to the real world and shaping their perceptions of the profession, its mission, and responsibilities.However, the daily working environment and organizational culture limit the extent to which journalists can uphold the values they learned in school.
Apple Daily (Taiwan) first published on 2 May 2003.It is the first newspaper in Taiwan and publishes 365 days a year.It is the only newspaper in Taiwan subject to the circulation audit from the Audit Bureau of Circulations (ROC).
identified these key features: professional knowledge, professional independence, professional self-regulation, and professional ethics.Many researchers have cited the criteria proposed by McLeod and Hawley Jr., which places emphasis on service, intellectual activity, autonomy, and influence (McLeod & Hawley Jr., 1964, p. 530).The Taiwanese scholar Lo stated that the standard should be centered on fulfillment of the professional journalist's role